Employment and Wage Gaps Among Recent Canadian Male and Female Postsecondary Graduates
Jehn A.; Walters D.; Howells S.
2021
Higher Education Policy
7
10.1057/s41307-019-00162-0
Level of postsecondary schooling and field of study remain significant markers of social stratification. However, the extent to which these various types of postsecondary schooling influence the labor market outcomes of recent male and female graduates is unknown. Drawing on data from Statistics Canada’s 2013 National Graduates Survey, we examine the employment status and gender gap in earnings among recent Canadian male and female graduates at different levels of postsecondary education and various fields of study, three years after graduation. The findings indicate substantial gender disparities in employment status across all types of postsecondary education. The gender gap in earnings is highest among trades and community college graduates, but effectively disappears for graduates with earned doctorate degrees. With respect to field of study, the gender wage gap is smallest among liberal arts graduates and largest among graduates with math-, computer science-, or engineering-related credentials. The policy implications associated with these findings should be of interest to international researchers as pay equity among men and women in the workforce remains a priority for all OECD countries. © 2019, International Association of Universities.
employment outcomes; gender wage gap; postsecondary education; school-to-work transitions
Ahmed S., McGillivray M., Human Capital, Discrimination, and the Gender Wage Gap in Bangladesh, World Development, 67, pp. 506-524, (2015); Heterogeneity in the Gender Wage Gap in Canada. Discussion Paper, pp. 2016-2103, (2016); Baker M., Drolet M., A New View of the Male/Female Pay Gap, Canadian Public Policy, 36, 4, pp. 429-464, (2010); Baker M., Fortin N.M., Occupational Gender Composition and Wages in Canada, 1987–1988, Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue Canadienne d’économique, 34, 2, pp. 345-376, (2001); An analysis of the gender pay gap in professorial salaries at UBC, Report of the Pay Equity (Data) Working Group, (2010); Bar M., Kim S., Leukhina O., Gender Wage Gap Accounting: The Role of Selection Bias, Demography, 52, 5, pp. 1729-1750, (2015); Graduating in Canada: Profile, Labour Market Outcomes and Student Debt of the Class Of, (2009); Becker G.S., Human capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education, (1964); Becker G.S., Human capital, effort, and the sexual division of labor, Journal of Labor Economics, 3, 1, pp. S33-S58, (1985); Blickenstaff J.C., Women and Science Careers: Leaky Pipeline or Gender Filter?, Gender and Education, 17, 4, pp. 369-386, (2005); Boudarbat B., Connolly M., The Gender Wage Gap among Recent Post-secondary Graduates in Canada: A Distributional Approach, Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue Canadienne d’économique, 46, 3, pp. 1037-1065, (2013); Boudarbat B., Lemieux T., Riddell W.C., The Evolution of the Returns to Human Capital in Canada, 1980–2005, Canadian Public Policy, 36, 1, pp. 63-89, (2010); Budig M.J., England P., The Wage Penalty for Motherhood, American Sociological Review, 66, 2, pp. 204-225, (2001); Campbell K., Chelladurai R., Darnell R., Handford P., Koval J., Macfie S., Schroeder J., Report of the Faculty Pay Equity Committee, (2005); Christofides L.N., Swidinsky R., The Economic Returns to the Knowledge and Use of a Second Official Language: English in Quebec and French in the Rest-of-Canada, Canadian Public Policy, 36, 2, pp. 137-158, (2010); Clarke R.J., Forging a Gender-Balanced Economy, The OECD Observer, 300, (2014); Crook T.R., Todd S.Y., Combs J.G., Woehr D.J., Ketchen D.J., Does Human Capital Matter? A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship between Human Capital and Firm Performance, Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 3, (2011); Davies S., Zarifa D., The Stratification of Universities: Structural Inequality in Canada and the United States, Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 30, 2, pp. 143-158, (2012); Desjardins L., King D., Expectations and Labour Market Outcomes of Doctoral Graduates from Canadian Universities, (2011); Drolet M., Can the Workplace Explain Canadian Gender Pay Differentials?, New Zealand Economic Papers, 36, 1, pp. 75-77, (2002); Drolet M., Why Has the Gender Wage Gap Narrowed?, Perspectives on Labour and Income, 23, 1, (2011); England P., Reassessing the Uneven Gender Revolution and Its Slowdown, Gender and Society, 25, 1, pp. 113-123, (2011); Epstein G.S., Gafni D., Siniver E., Even Education Has Its Limits: Closing the Wage Gap, Journal of Economic Studies, 42, 5, pp. 908-928, (2015); Estevez-Abe M., Gender Bias in Skills and Social Policies: The Varieties of Capitalism Perspective on Sex Segregation, Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society, 12, 2, pp. 180-215, (2005); Ferguson S.J., Wang S., Graduating in Canada: Profile, labour market outcomes and student debt of the class of 2009–2010. Report no, 201410, (2014); Fortin N.M., Schirle T., (Gender Dimensions of Changes in Earnings Inequality in Canada’, Dimensions of Inequality in Canada, 1, pp. 307-346, (2006); Fox J., Andersen R., Effect Displays for Multinomial and Proportional-Odds Logit Models, Sociological Methodology, 36, 1, pp. 225-255, (2006); Frank K., Phythian K., Walters D., Anisef P., ‘Understanding the Economic Integration of Immigrants: A Wage Decomposition of the Earnings Disparities between Native-Born Canadians and Recent Immigrant Cohorts, Social Sciences, 2, 2, pp. 40-61, (2013); Frenette M., Frank K., Earnings of Postsecondary Graduates by Detailed Field of Study, (2016); Furno M., Returns to Education and Gender Gap, International Review of Applied Economics, 28, 5, pp. 628-649, (2014); Gardeazabal J., Ugidos A., Gender Wage Discrimination at Quantiles, Journal of Population Economics, 18, 1, pp. 165-179, (2005); Gerber T.P., Cheung S.Y., ‘Horizontal Stratification in Postsecondary Education: Forms, Explanations, and Implications’, Annual Review of Sociology, 34, pp. 299-318, (2008); Gunderson M., Weiner N., Pay Equity: Issues, (1990); Hakim C., Women, Careers, and Work-Life Preferences, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 34, 3, pp. 279-294, (2006); Hall F.L., Arnold H., Intentions for and Outcomes Following a Decade of Government Investment in Graduate Education, (2014); Hodges M.J., Budig M.J., Who Gets the Daddy Bonus? Organizational Hegemonic Masculinity and the Impact of Fatherhood on Earnings, Gender and Society, 24, 6, pp. 717-745, (2010); Hou F., Coulombe S., Earnings Gaps for Canadian-Born Visible Minorities in the Public and Private Sectors, Canadian Public Policy, 36, 1, pp. 29-43, (2010); Hughes J., Maurer-Fazio M., Effects of Marriage, Education and Occupation on the Female/Male Wage Gap in China, Pacific Economic Review, 7, 1, pp. 137-156, (2002); Konstantopoulos S., Constant A., The Gender Gap Reloaded: Are School Characteristics Linked to Labor Market Performance?, Social Science Research, 37, 2, pp. 374-385, (2008); Lips H.M., The Gender Pay Gap: Challenging the Rationalizations. Perceived Equity, Discrimination, and the Limits of Human Capital Models, Sex Roles, 68, 3-4, pp. 169-185, (2013); Long J.S., Freese J., Regression models for categorical dependent variables using stata, College Station, (2014); Maume D.J., Ruppanner L., State Liberalism, Female Supervisors, and the Gender Wage Gap, Social Science Research, 50, pp. 126-138, (2015); McDonald J.A., Thornton R.J., Coercive Cooperation”? Ontario’s Pay Equity Act of 1988 and The Gender Pay Gap, Contemporary Economic Policy, 33, 4, pp. 606-618, (2015); McMullen K., Gilmore J., Le Petit C., Women in Non-Traditional Occupations and Fields of Study, 7, 1, (2010); Miki M., Yuval F., Using Education to Reduce the Wage Gap between Men and Women, The Journal of Socio-Economics, 40, 4, pp. 412-416, (2011); Moyser M., Women and Paid Work, (2017); Mussida C., Picchio M., The Gender Wage Gap by Education in Italy, The Journal of Economic Inequality, 12, 1, pp. 117-147, (2014); Ochsenfeld F., Why Do Women’s Fields of Study Pay Less? A Test of Devaluation, Human Capital, and Gender Role Theory, European Sociological Review, 30, 4, pp. 536-548, (2014); Petersen T., Morgan L.A., Separate and Unequal: Occupation-Establishment Sex Segregation and the Gender Wage Gap, American Journal of Sociology, 101, 2, pp. 329-365, (1995); Schulze U., The Gender Wage Gap among PhDs in the UK, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 39, 2, pp. 599-629, (2015); Singh P., Peng P., Canada’s Bold Experiment with Pay Equity, Gender in Management: An International Journal, 25, 7, pp. 570-585, (2010); Smith M.R., Waite S., Durand C., Gender Differences in the Earnings Produced by a Middle Range Education: The Case of Canadian “Colleges, Social Science Research, 66, pp. 140-153, (2017); Taneja S., Golden Pryor M., Oyler J., Empowerment and Gender Equality: The Retention and Promotion of Women in the Workforce, Journal of Business Diversity, 12, 3, pp. 43-53, (2012); Waite S., Postgraduate Wage Premiums and the Gender Wage Gap in Canada, Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 47, 2, pp. 156-187, (2017); Walters D., An Examination of the School-to-Work Transitions of Male and Female College and University Graduates of Applied and Liberal Arts Programs in Canada, Higher Education Policy, 19, 2, pp. 225-250, (2006); Walters D., Zarifa D., Earnings and Employment Outcomes for Male and Female Postsecondary Graduates of Coop and Non-coop Programmes, Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 60, 4, pp. 377-399, (2008); Zafar B., College Major Choice and the Gender Gap, Journal of Human Resources, 48, 3, pp. 545-595, (2013); Zarifa D., Walters D., Seward B., The Earnings and Employment Outcomes of the 2005 Cohort of Canadian Postsecondary Graduates with Disabilities, Canadian Review of Sociology, 52, 4, pp. 343-376, (2015)
Palgrave Macmillan
Article
All Open Access; Bronze Open Access
Scopus